In all literatures, two streams are very common: written and oral. A nation or a race having a language with its alphabets and script has been able to create written literature while with an ethnic group, it is the other way round. Across the entire world, there are many ethnic groups who have languages but no alphabets or scripts. Arguably, there are about 45 or more smaller ethnic communities in Bangladesh, and their rich and vibrant literature, culture and heritage have significantly contributed to the enrichment of Bangladeshi national and cultural identity. These are the people who follow the stream of oral literature. Ever since the emergence of Bangla literature, the educated section of Bangladesh society has been cultivating written literature. The overwhelming number of uneducated and even unlettered rural people pursued folk traditions where folk literature has been the mainstay of their expressions, reflecting their varied imagination and emotion. To ventilate their feelings, these people resorted to singing songs, ballads, narrating stories and tales, reciting rhymes and lores, and developing quizzes. Folk literature can be classified into different genres—folktales, folk songs, folk ballads, folk drama, rhymes, hymns, riddles and proverbs. Folktales are in narrative prose while folk songs, folk ballads, folk rhymes, hymns and riddles are in mixed metrics.

The term “Mahale” is derived from the Santali word “mah” meaning bamboo, and as the members of this community take up the profession of making baskets and other things with bamboo, they are called Mahale. They believe in a myth that their occupation emanated from the idea that “cultivation on the land for crops is directly opposite to the will of their Creator”.’ Another myth is about their symbiotic co-existence with the Santal community—in Santal marriage ceremonies, it is a must to collect “dewra” (baskets) from the wicker-making Mahale people. In the Barind tract of Rajshahi district in northern Bangladesh, the Mahale community has developed a unique and symbiotic adaptation strategy to interact with their environment as well as with their nearest Santal people.

As customs and tradition are the life-blood of the Mahale community, they cannot be separated from their customary laws, or norms which are actually embedded in their culture. Different adaptive changes of the Mahale people from their birth to death and their interactions with their own group give birth to various stages of their cultural development, embodying or centering round the rituals that accompany their social transitions and ceremonies. Apart from their religious beliefs—Catholic Christianity—they observe many other rituals and ceremonies to connect with Nature and the physical environment, life-cycle, social structure and witchcraft.

To understand the Mahale literature, including rhymes, songs, poems and tales, each is first transcribed into Roman script, followed by phonetic transcription, and translation into English. Finally, the versification of the lines focusing on the technical competence of the work are done followed by its critical appreciation. But before the metrical analysis of Mahale rhymes, songs and poems collected during the field visits to the project area in the village Surshunipara in the Barind tract of Rajshahi district of Northern Bangladesh, an overview on the metrics in given.

The meter tends to put the reader in such a condition so that their imagination can work with greater freedom; it helps create in the reader what has been called the “willing suspension of disbelief”. Meter tends, as Coleridge has said, “to increase the vivacity and susceptibility both of general feelings and of the attention…as a medicated atmosphere, or as a wine during animated conversation, they (the anticipations set up by the meter) act powerfully, though themselves unnoticed”.

In meter, we find an intense state of emotion, natural and instinctive, and it tends toward rhythmical expression which distinguishes poetry from prose. We measure the verse (the systematic ordering of rhythm is called verse) according to the line with the help of meter. The unit of measurement is called foot which is composed of one or more accented syllables and one or more unaccented syllables.

What are the common metrical feet?

The names of some of the most used feet are:
Iamb: one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable (examples include words such as describe, include, retract)
Trochee: one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable (examples include words such as  picture, flower)
Dactyl: one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (for example, the word annotate [an-no-tate])
Anapest: two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable (for example, the word  comprehend [com-pre-hend])
Spondee: two stressed syllables together (for example, the word enough [e-nough])
Pyrrhic: two unstressed syllables together (this is very rare, usually used to end dactylic hexameter)

The numbers of metrical feet in a line described in Greek terminology are as follows:

Monometer: one foot
Diameter: two feet (for example, the WAY a CROW)
Trimeter: three feet (for example, NA-ture’s first GREEN is GOLD)
Tetrameter: four feet (for example, whose WOODS these ARE i THINK i KNOW)
Pentameter: five feet (for example, SOME-thing there IS that DOES-n’t LOVE a WALL)
Hexameter: six feet
Heptameter: seven feet
Octameter: eight feet

Following are the notable examples of poets who use different metrical feet in their poems:

Iambic pentameter: (John Milton in Paradise Lost, William Shakespeare in sonnets)
Dactylic hexameter: (Homer in The Iliad)
Iambic tetrameter: (Robert Frost in Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening)
Trochaic octameter: (Edgar Allan Poe in The Raven)
Anapestic tetrameter: (Lord Byron in Don Juan)

Below are two samples of rhymes, songs, poems and stories, and each of them is supported by its phonetic transcription, versification and English translation and critical appreciation. It may be noted that some of their literary works have been based on unpublished written materials, while many others are recorded from the Mahale people, which were later verified.

Rhyme 1

[Source: Uzzol Hasdak]

Birbaha baháen
Ato  hoṛko sapṛaoen
Riskatebon perećen.

Phonetic transcription of the lines:

bɪrbaha bəhajen
at̪o hɒɽko səpɽaoən
rɪʃkat̪ebɒn peresən

Versification:

ʹbir ̆ba ̆ha ̸  ʹbə ̆ha ̆jen̸
ʹa ̆to̸  ʹhɒɽ ̆ko̸  ʹsəp ̆ rao ̆ən̸
ʹrɪʃ  k̆a̸  ʹte b̆ɒn̸ ʹpe r̆e s̆ən̸

English translation:

Flowers blossom in the forest
Preparations are afoot
Baha festival is round the corner

We are simply ecstatic.

Critical appreciation:
The rhyme is metrically irregular—the first line is a dactylic diameter, while the second and third lines maintain regularity in metrics. The second and third lines are, however, predominantly trochaic trimeter, with the second line having two trochaic feet and a dactyl followed by the same pattern in the third line.

The asymmetrical metrics dominate the three-line stanza which heralds the arrival of a celebratory occasion called Baha festival for the Mahales. Baha means flowers. That is why, when the flowers bloom, the Mahalees prepare to celebrate. A happy mood sets the tone which is maintained till the end of the rhyme. Barely do the marginalized people have occasions like this in their life; therefore, they are all set to welcome and observe this event with much passion and gusto.

Rhyme 2

[Source: Uzzol Hasdak]

Atul batul simla satul
Korla vaji getpe
Sunum, buluṅ banuḱa
Den buṛhi mit́ gilas ca

Phonetic transcription:

atʊl batʊl sɪmla satʊl
kərla bhad͡ʒɪ getpe
sʊnʊm bʊlʊṅ bənʊkə
den bʊrhɪ mɪt gɪlas t͡ʃa

Versification:

ʹa ̆tʊl ̸  ʹba ̆tʊl ̸  ʹsɪm ̆la ̸  ʹsa ̆tʊl ̸
ʹkər ̆la ̸  ʹbha ̆d͡ʒɪ ̸ ʹget ̆pe ̸
ʹsʊ ̆nʊm ̸  ʹbʊ ̆lʊṅ ̸  ʹbənʊ ̆kə ̸
ʹden ̆bʊr ̸  ʹhɪ ̆mɪt ̸  ʹgɪ ̆las ̆t͡ʃa ̸

English translation:

Fry some bitter gourd
But no oil or salt
Give me a cup of tea, my dear.

Critical appreciation:
The quatrain is dominated by trochaic tetrameter, with the first three lines following the same metrical unity, but the last is of mixed metrics—trochaic diameter and one dactyl monometer. The tone of the stanza appears to be light-hearted all through, reflecting the business usual in domestic life. The husband-wife relationship is rocky at times and sometimes it is smooth. The ups and downs are the beauty of a married life; otherwise, it would be tedious. The husband, who appears to be back from work, seems ravenously hungry and urges his wife to hurry through her cooking to serve him the meal: a dish of fried bitter gourd followed by a cup of tea.

Song 1

[Source: Dosorot Khanger]

Bhala dela delare mat́ kamiabun
Mat́ kami abuaḱdo
Mare Kristi kana
Bhala dela delare mat́ kamiabun
Pataḱ khićlaḱ beno kate ḍihari idiabun
Bhala dela delare mat́ kamiabun
Ḍihari khoć heć kate
Jhumer enećabun
Bhala dela delare mat́ kamiabun

Phonetic transcription:

Bhalə dela deləre mət kəmɪabʊn
mət kəmɪ abʊakdo
məre krɪstɪ kənə
bhalə delə deləre mət kəmɪabʊn
pətək khɪt͡ʃlək beno kəte dɪharɪ ɪdɪabʊn
bhalə dela deləre mət kəmɪabʊn
dɪhərɪ khok hek kəte
d͡ʒʊmər enet͡ʃəbʊn
bhalə dela deləre mət kəmɪabʊn

Versification:

ʹBha ̆lə  ̸ ʹde ̆la ̸ ʹde ̆lə ̆re ̸  ʹmət ̆kə ̸ ʹmɪ ̆̆a ̆bʊn ̸
ʹmət ̆kə ̸  ʹmɪ ̆abʊ ̸ ʹak ̆do ̸
ʹmə ̆re ̸ ʹkrɪs ̆tɪ ̸ ʹkə ̆nə ̸
ʹbha ̆lə ̸ ʹde ̆la ̸ ʹde ̆lə ̆re ̸ ʹmət ̆kə ̸ ʹmɪ ̆a ̆bʊn ̸
ʹpə ̆tək ̸ ʹkhɪt͡ʃ  ̆lek ̸ ʹbe ̆no ̸̸  ʹkə ̆te ̸ ʹdɪ ̆ha ̆rɪ ̸ ʹɪdɪ ̆a ̆bʊn ̸
ʹbha ̆lə ̸ ʹde ̆la ̸ ʹde ̆lə ̆re ̸ ʹmət ̆kə ̸ ʹmɪ ̆a ̆bʊn ̸
ʹdɪ ̆hə ̆rɪ ̸ ʹkhot͡ʃ ̆het͡ʃ ̸  ʹkə ̆te ̸
ʹd͡ʒʊ ̆mər ̆e ̸ ʹnet͡ʃ ̆ə ̆ʹbʊn ̸
ʹbha ̆lə ̸ ʹde ̆la ̸ ʹde ̆lə ̆re ̸ ʹmət ̆kə ̸ ʹmɪ ̆a ̆bʊn ̸

English translation:

Let’s do the wicker-work together
This is our traditional culture
Let’s do the wicker-work together.
After selling the baskets in the market
We’ll sing and go Jhumur dancing.
Let’s do the wicker-work together.

Critical appreciation:
The song comprising nine lines is a blend of metrical variations. Like the other rhymes and songs, this one is also predominantly trochaic and dactylic, with a pentameter refrain “Bhala dela delare mat́ kamiabun” (let’s do the wicker-work together) being repeated thrice in the song. Of the lines, there is a hexametric mixed metrical one, too. The tone of the song is motivational, and the encouragement is aimed at revving up the spirit of the community people to help them gear up their income-generating activities for bettering their life. Since the wicker-work is the profession of the Mahale community, they are being called upon to take up the vocation seriously to make their products more available and saleable in the market. Once they get good prices for their skill-based produce, it will have a salutary impact on their life and living. They can go “Jhumur” dancing and singing (Jhumur is a typical rhythmic beat in dance and songs of the indigenous community across the country) to celebrate the profitable market returns.

Song 2

[Source: Santosh Hemrom]

Saṅgiń disam kulińkanape
Hajuḱ calaḱ badpe
Icaḱ hako leka dabṛa baṛa
Sole hako leka paira baṛa.

Phonetic transcription:

səngɪn dɪsəm kʊlɪnkənəpe
həd͡ʒʊk t͡ʃalək bədpe
ɪkək həko lekə dəbra bəra
sole həko lekə paɪra bəra

Versification:

səngɪn dɪsəm kʊlɪnkənəpe
həd͡ʒʊk t͡ʃalək bədpe
ɪkək həko lekə dəbra bəra
sole həko lekə paɪra bəra

English translation:

If I marry you off to a far-off place
How will you see me?
I’ll cut capers and fret like shellfish
Like the tiger-shrimp, I’ll have to swim
What a pain I’ll be in!

Critical appreciation:
The song depicts an emotionally-charged parting scene where the father and the daughter are the main players. Wedding celebration over, the grief-stricken daughter vents her genuine concern about why she was married off to a person who is from a distant place. While marriage is traditionally a journey from one home to another for a girl, this girl is heartbroken thinking about how her family will visit her as she is going to a far-off land. She thinks she will jump like a prawn, a simile that has been used to vividly portray what her mental afflictions will be when she is miles apart.

Poem 1

Mahale jatiaḱ bhabna
[Source: Sandha Mandri]
Mahale jati ebhen abun abuaḱ bhudhdhi motti
Dharti laho calaḱkana
Cinta bhabna ar gobesonare lahaḱabun
Paṛhodo baṅ bagiabun, sanan seć khoć pechogiabun
nia katha cintaḱabun
noṅkategi disam ar jatiaḱnutun dohoabun

Phonetic transcription:

mahale d͡ʒətɪ ebʰen əbʊn əbuək bʰʊdʰdʰɪ mottɪ
dʰərtɪ ləho t͡ʃələkkənə
t͡ʃɪnta bʰabna ar gobesonare ləhəkəbʊn
pəɾhodo bən bəgɪabʊn, sənən set͡ʃ kʰot͡ʃ pet͡ʃogɪabʊn
nɪa kətʰa t͡ʃɪntakəbʊn
noŋkətegɪ dɪsəm ar t͡ʃatɪaknʊtʊn dohoəbʊn

Versification:

ʹMa ̆ha ̆le ̸ ʹd͡ʒə ̆tɪ ̆e ̸ ʹbʰ ̆en ̸ ʹə ̆bʊn ̸ ʹə ̆bu ̆ək ̸ ʹbʰʊdʰ ̆dʰɪ ̸ ʹmot ̆tɪ ̸
ʹdʰər ̆tɪ ̸ ʹlə ̆ho ̸ ʹt͡ʃə ̆ləkkə ̆nə ̸
ʹt͡ʃɪn ̆ta ̸ ʹbʰab ̆na ̸ ̆ar ʹgo ʹbe ̸ ʹso ̆na ̆re ̸  lə hə ̸ kə bʊn
ʹpəɾ ̆ho ̆̆do ̸ ʹbə n ̸ ʹbə ̆gɪa ̆bʊn/ ʹsə ̆nən ̸ ʹset͡ʃ  ̆kʰot͡ʃ ̸ ʹpe ̆t͡ʃo ̸ ʹgɪ ̆a ʹbʊn ̸
ʹnɪ ̆a ̸  ʹkə ̆tʰa ̸  ʹt͡ʃɪn ̆ta ̸  ʹkə ̆bʊn
ʹnoŋ ̆kə ̸  ʹte ̆gɪ ̸ ʹdɪ  ̆səm ̸ ʹar ̆dʒə ̆tɪa ̸  ʹknʊ  ̆tʊn ̸ ʹdo ̆ho ̸ ʹə ̆bʊn

English translation:

To keep pace with the progress of the world
We will invoke the spirit of intellectual curiosity and foster creativity among the Mahale
The community is fully aware of it
They are left with no choices except keeping pace with the advancement
Education is the only way out; already we have been pushed to the back burner
To uphold the name and dignity of the Mahale, we must move forward, and we shall.

Critical appreciation:
Laced with dactyls and trochees and varying metrical feet, the sestet is primarily motivational. The poem focuses on the need for the intellectual, societal growth and social awareness of the Mahale. In the backdrop of the ongoing development in all sectors, Mahale people are called upon to gear up their insightful efforts to advance their educational growth and scale newer heights in the creation and production of new knowledge through research. As they lag behind in all aspects, emphasis has been laid on the significance of the continuance of their quest for knowledge. To keep abreast with the knowledge-based economy, Mahale people should strive hard to bring about a positive change in their lives by updating their skill-sets to create a knowledge-based community. This is how the Mahale people can consolidate their footing and leave a mark in the overall development of their community, in particular, and the nation, in general.

Poem 2

Mahale

[Source: Paul Tudu]

Mahale kaniń mat́ kami kate jomiń
Kaida-kato –ghura- mungra mat́ ar ti
Nia kute kamiń ar jomiń
Benaoiń dalić, phitiaḱ, sorpos, tapa ar cala
Emantiaḱ mat́raḱ jinis
Porob manaoiń jitia ar karma
Arhõ tahekana aima
Dare reaḱ rohor sakam leka at́cabaḱkana
Sirińiń jhumer ar enećiń jhumta.

Phonetic transcription:

mahale kənɪn mət kəmɪ kəte d͡ʒomɪn
kaɪdo-kəto gʰʊra mʊngrə mət ar tɪ
nɪa kʊte kəmɪn ar d͡ʒomɪn
be nao ɪn dalɪt͡ʃ, pʰɪtɪak, sorpos, tapa ar t͡ʃala
eməntɪak mətrək d͡ʒɪnɪs
porob mənəoɪn d͡ʒɪtɪa ar kərmə
arhõ təhekənə aɪmə
dəre reak rohor səkəm lekə att͡ʃəbəkkənə
sɪrɪnɪn d͡ʒʊmer ar enet͡ʃɪn d͡ʒʊmtə

Versification:

ʹMa ̆ha ̆le ̸ ʹkə ̆nɪn ̸ ʹmət ̆kə ̆mɪ ̸ ʹkə ̆te ̸ ʹd͡ʒo ̆mɪn ̸
ʹkaɪ ̆do ̸-ʹkə ̆to ̸ ʹgʰʊ ̆ra ̸ ʹmʊn ̆grə ̸ mət ̆ar ̆tɪ ̸
ʹnɪ ̆a ̸ ʹkʊ ̆te ̸ ʹkə ̆mɪn ̸ ʹar ̆d͡ʒo ̆mɪn ̸
ʹbe ̆nao ̆ɪn ̸ ʹda ̆lɪk ̸  ʹpʰɪ ̆tɪ ̆ak,̸ ʹsor ̆pos,̸  ʹta ̆pa ̸ ʹar ̆tʃa ̆la ̸
ʹe ̆mən ̸ ʹtɪ ̆ak ̸ ʹmət ̆rək ̸ ʹd͡ʒɪ ̆nɪs ̸
ʹpo ̆rob ̸ ʹmə ̆nəo ̆ɪn ̸ ʹd͡ʒɪ ̆tɪa ̸ ʹar ̆kər ̆̆mə ̸
ʹar ̆hõ ̸ ʹtə ̆hek ̆ənə ̸ ʹaɪ ̆mə ̸
ʹdə ̆re ̸ ʹre ̆ak ̸ ʹro ̆hor ̸ ʹsə ̆kəm ̸ ʹle ̆kə ̸ ʹatt͡ʃə ̆bək ̆kənə ̸
ʹsɪ ̆rɪ ̆nɪm ̸ ʹd͡ʒʊ ̆mer ̸ ʹar ̆ene ̆t͡ʃɪn ̸ ʹd͡ʒʊm ̆tə ̸

English translation:

Mahali I am; I am a wicker worker
Kaida, kato, mungra, ghura and bamboo
And our hands are the essential tools of our work
Dalas and jhaka we make
Sorposh, tapa and chala we make, too; all bamboo-made work
Jitiya and karma occasions we celebrate
We had so many traditions
Like dead leaves, they are all withering away
I sing Jhumur songs; with the Jhumta I dance
I am a Mahali.

Critical appreciation:
This poem is mainly trochaic and dactylic like other poems. It talks about the skill-sets and lifestyles of the Mahale people. Besides, there is a mention of various tools—kaida, kato, mungra, ghura, and bamboo which they use to do their wicker work with, their main vocation. The basket-making Mahalees make dala, jhaka, sorpos, tapa and chala with bamboo. Two festivities are central to their social tradition—“Jitia” and “Karma” pujas. Furthermore, Jhumur song and Jhumta dance add an extra impetus to their key celebratory occasions. But unfortunately, like the falling leaves, many such celebrations are on the wane.

Conclusion:
With the death or the situation hastening the process of the death of a language eventually results in the death of a culture. When a language dies, the knowledge of and the ability to understand the culture who spoke it is threatened because the teachings, customs, oral traditions and other inherited knowledge are no longer transmitted among the native speakers. The extinction causes the entire body of knowledge, songs, myths and poetry to disappear affecting the total conceptualization of reality. This sense of identity loss weakens social cohesion as values and traditions are forced to accept new dominant interventions which accelerate the process of native language attrition and its endangerment. Barely can we do anything for the protection of the endangered language and culture like Mahali if adequate and proper steps are not taken to transfer the dying language to the next generation. Promotion of their culture demands paramount importance as younger generation should be encouraged to speak the language. Different ICT apps and other apps could be developed to translate, catalogue and store information about the language, and podcasts could also be put into use for the preservation of spoken versions of the language, which would be a storehouse of the history and culture of the Mahale people and their community.